HIV/AIDS CAMPAIGN GETS CASH DOLE OUT

According to a statement from the US Embassy in Dar es Salaam, the support will bring to 1.2 million people, the total number of Tanzanians on HIV treatment.

“The funds will support the activities under the PEP FAR Country Operational Plan from October 2017 to September 2018, and represent a 12.3 per cent increase over last year’s budget,” the statement read in part.

Under the renewed plan, PEPFAR will work with the Government of Tanzania and implementing partners to provide HIV testing to 8.6 million Tanzanians and provide treatment to 360,000 people who newly test positive.

The budget includes special allocations for the care and treatment of orphans and vulnerable children and, to further prevent HIV transmission, PEPFAR will support voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC) for 890,000 men, according to the statement.

“This plan continues the US longstanding partnership with Tanzania in the health sector, including a decade of collaboration to successfully curb HIV transmission and work towards an AIDS-Free Generation,” the statement further noted.

Commenting on the approved plan, Chargé d’Affaires Virginia Blaser said: “On behalf of the American people, we are extremely pleased to continue our support for and partnership with the Tanzanian people.

Together, we are working to achieve an AIDS-Free Generation in Tanzania – one in which no one is left behind.” PEPFAR’s partners and stakeholders in the development and implementation of this plan include the Ministry of Health, Community Development, Gender, Elderly and Children, the Tanzanian Commission for AIDS (TACAIDS) and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS).

Others are the Global Fund to Fight Tuberculosis, AIDS, and Malaria (GFTAM), the World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, the Benjamin Mkapa HIV/AIDS Foundation (BMAF), and the National Network of Tanzanian Women with HIV/AIDS (NETWO+)

MALTHUS THEORY OF POPULATION VS ESTHER BOSERUP THEORY

Population means the number of people in a geographical area. It can also be used for subgroups of people or animals and they have capability of interbreeding. It describes a group of individuals of the same species occupying a specific area at a specific time.

Theory is a set of assumptions, propositions or accepted facts that attempts to provide rational explanation of cause and effect relationships among a group of observed phenomenon. It is a set of ideas that is intended to explain something or a subject. the theories are analytical tools for understanding, explaining and making predictions about a given subject matter.

Basically, there are theories that explain on the concept of population growth in relation to the global       limited available resources including Malthus theory, theory of Demographic transition, Boserup’s theory, Thomas Doubleday’s diet theory, Herbert spencer’s biological theory. But specifically the discussion below includes background, similarities and differences between on the main two population theories named as Malthus theory and Boserup theory.

BACK GROUND OF MALTHUS THEORY AND BOSERUP THEORY

Malthus theory:

This theory was stated by Thomas Malthus; He was born in 13 February 1766 and died in 29 December 1834.He was an English cleric and scholar influential in the field of political economy and demography. He also wrote a book known as An Essay on the Principle of population  as he observed that an increase in a nations food production improved the well-being of the populace but the improvement was temporary because it led to population growth which in turn restored the original per capital production level in other words mankind had a propensity to utilize abundance  for population growth  rather than for maintaining a high  standard of living a view that has become known as the "Malthus trap "or the “Malthusian  spectre".  (Dupaquier,2001), He also believe that population had a tendency to grow until the lower class suffered hardship and want greater susceptibility to famine and disease a view that is sometimes referred to as Malthus catastrophe .He wrote in opposition to the popular view in 18^th century he saw population growth as being inevitable whenever conditions improved there by precluding real progress towards a utopian society "The power of population is indefinitely greater than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man as an divinely imposed to teach virtuous behavior  Malthus wrote "That the increase of population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence. That Population does invariably increase when the means of subsistence increase and that the superior power of population is repressed by moral restraint vice and misery” Malthus criticized the poor laws for leading to inflation rather than improving the wellbeing of the poor .He supported taxes on grain imports (the corn laws) because food security was more important than maximizing wealth. His views became influential and controversial across economic political social and scientific thought pioneers of evolutionary biology read him notably Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace. He remains a much debated writer. 

Boserup’s theory:

This theory was stated by Esther Boserup; she was born on May 18, 1910 and died September 24, 1999. She was a Danish economist who studied economic and agricultural development, worked at the United Nations as well as other international organizations and wrote seminal books on agrarian change and the role of women in development .Boserup is known for her theory of agricultural intensification also known as Quays’ theory which posits that population change drives the intensity of agricultural production. Her position countered the Malthusian theory that agricultural methods determine population via limits on food supply. Her best known book on is The Conditions of Agricultural Growth presents a dynamic analysis embracing all types of primitive agriculture "(Boserup E1965.p13). A major point of her book was necessity is the mother of invention "Her other major work was women’s Role in Economic Development advanced the view that women’s role in economic development was in sufficiently valued. She believed that humanity would always find a way and she was quoted saying "The power of ingenuity would always out match the debate on the women in workforce and human development and the possibility of better opportunities of work and education for women.

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN MALTHUS THEORY AND BOSERUP THEORY

Malthus and Boserup both had theory describing the concept of population growth relating to food supply. in spite of the fact that they lived the different area they both tried to explain opposite concepts but of the same manner about population size of their lives based on how the world was in that particular time. Boserup suggested that the more people there are, the more the hand there are to work while Malthus suggested that as the demand of food increase supplies come under greater pressure, hence he believed that if the human population continued to grow, food production would not be able to keep up with demand and there would not be enough food to go around thus it shows that they were both focus on population distribution.

Both agree that the rise of population will increase demand for food. Malthus said that as population rise exponentially then the food will increase arithmetically hence food supply will decrease and demand for food will rise. Also Boserup agree that population will lead to the increase of demand for food hence the population will innovate the means of solving the problem and this will complete the meaning of Boserup that population is incentive of production.

Both theories discuss to the idea of the balance between population and resources, changing population can be viewed in relation to how many resources are available to support that population, pessimistic of Thomas Malthus and the optimism attitudes of Esther Boserup.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALTHUS THEORY AND BOSERUP THEORY

Thomas Malthus suggests that the global population is increasing exponentially while global resource production and extraction are only increasing arithmetically.  Hence he suggests that there is a point where the earth’s resources will not be able to support the ever growing population. While Esther Boserup views contrast it, she suggests that the population itself is a resource. Humans have the means and knowledge to overcome the lack of resources by inventing new ways of resource extraction and production. In support of this view are new ways of food production, fertilizers, food technology modified crops, new technologies to find oil reserves. This increases the earth’s carrying capacity.

Thomas argument was essentially that population grew geometrically (1,2,4,8,16,32) where as food products and resources provision grew at a slower arithmetic rate (1,2,3,4,5,6). He concluded that because of this more and more peasants and subsistence farmers would live poorer and poorer lives until some checks came into place. He proposed that there would be positive checks which raise the death rates and preventive checks which lower the birth rate. The positive checks include hunger disease and war while the preventives include abortion, birth controls, prostitution, postponements of marriage and celibacy. While the alternative view point came from Esther who suggests that human innovation and technological advancement would allow food production to keep up with growing population. She was a Danish economist and published “The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian change under population pressure.

Malthus said that population increase had an increased demand on food supply and said that with increased demand would eventually decrease food production. This idea is based upon the law of diminishing returns were increased population would increase the pressure onto farm more intensively and cultivate poorer land leading to poorer yields. While Boserup she argued that when population density is low enough to allow it land tends to be used intermittently (not frequently-with gaps in time to allow land to recover) with heavy reliance on fire to clear fields and fallowing to restore fertility. It is only when rising population density reduce the use of fallowing (and therefore the use of fire) that fields are moved towards annual cultivation. This reduces fertility and to deal with this people expanded efforts at fertilizing field preparation, weed control and irrigation. This process of raising production at the cost of more work at lower efficiency is what Boserup describes as agricultural intensification.

There are limitations to Malthus theory though he couldn’t have seen the enormous changes in farming technology that enable us to produce tons of food. He also failed to predict that the reduced population growth as countries develop economically and progress through the later stages of the demographic transition model. Malthus theory ignores the role played by technology because it was developed in 1798 before the Agrarian revolution. While Boserup theory was developed in 1968 after the Agrarian revolution hence saw the importance of technology on increasing food production that could support the available population. Although the limitation of the theory is that her idea is also based on a “closed community”. But in reality there are no closed communities due to migration of people from one place to another.

Basing on these two theories, Malthusian theory and Boserup theory provide various applications into present population such as follows,

If we continue to grow so exponentially without technological advances the earths will eventually hit carrying capacity as we see in developing countries the population increasing with little changes in technological advancement which cause over exploitation of available resources like land, and finally result to famine and hanger.

Apart from that these two theories help the government to establish various measures like provision of knowledge on the mechanisms that can be used to deal with the number of people and available resources as explained by Malthus like the establishment of the family planning and postponement of marriage likewise the increasing population should be correlate to the technological advancement so as to manage resources technologically as it is proposed by Boserup.

These two theories seem to be somewhat different to one another by considering their basic assumptions.  This is due to the fact that Malthus and Boserup are from different eras such that, Thomas Malthus lived through the 18th-19^th century while Ester Boserup lived through the 20^th century. In this time these two theories were divided by the industrial revolution, which automatically means that the views on world population and resources were different. In other way Malthus believed the increasing number of people threaten the available resources but his idea are very pessimistic since he did not take into account that technology continue to become more advanced and there may be a way to solve problems related to population growth technologically before we hit the earth caring capacity. Boserup believe that increasing population leads to the increase in production but she fail to recognize the limited resources like land which become scarcer as the population grow.

ANALYSIS OF POPULATION DYNAMICS IN TANZANIA

Looking back, in the year of 1960, Tanzania had a population of 10.1 million people. Now the population of Tanzania is estimated over 51 million people, Tanzania is one of the fastest growing nations in the world. In 1967 Tanzania had a population of 12.3 million. As of last year the population had nearly quadrupled to 44.9 million citizens. With a 2.9 percent population growth rate, Tanzania is expanding exponentially. It is projected that in 2035 Tanzania will have a population of nearly 100 million people. As mentioned, despite being one of sub-Saharan Africa’s more progressive and prosperous countries, Tanzania remains a low-income country. The government of Tanzania simply does not have the capacity nor can it afford to support 100 million citizens. Resources for supporting such population growth in terms of health, education, housing, jobs, food, water, and security do not match the growth Tanzania is facing. In certain areas, the resources aren't even enough for the current population. 

Decrease or growth of population comes from the interplay births, deaths and migration and Birth and death rates are the most important determinants of population growth; in some countries, net migration is also important in this regard.

Births in Tanzania

Tanzania has one of the highest birth rates in the world and more than 44% of the population is under the age of 15. The total fertility rate is 5.01 children born per woman, which is the 17th highest of any country. Contributing to Tanzania’s rapid population growth is its high total fertility rate (TFR). As of 2011, 5.4 children are born per woman of childbearing age, according to the World Bank. This rate is astounding. However, one in four women cannot access the family planning services that they need; this unmet need for contraception is a major impact on Tanzania’s TFR. There are also high rates of teenage pregnancy, with 23 percent of females ages 15 to 19 who have had children or are currently pregnant, early marriage which also fuels this high fertility rate. 

Deaths in Tanzania

Between 1992 and 1996, about 88 of every 1,000 newborns died before their first birthday, and 137 of every 1,000 died before age 5. The 2010 Demographic and Health Survey found the average infant mortality rate had dropped to 51 per 1,000 and the under 5 mortality rate to 81 in the five years preceding the survey.

However, only 50 percent of Tanzanian mothers have the services of a skilled attendant during childbirth. While this is a slight increase from 46 percent in the 2004-05, it is not enough progress to significantly improve maternal health and reduce maternal mortality. Skilled medical care during childbirth reduces the risk of infection and other complications that threaten the health of both mother and child.

There is considerable variation in who uses skilled childbirth attendants. Mothers who are younger, have more education, and who live in urban areas are much more likely to have received medical care from a skilled attendant at childbirth. The Demographic and Health Survey found that mothers with at least a secondary education were twice more likely to have skilled childbirth attendants than women with no education. While the most recent estimates from the World Health Organization show some improvement in maternal mortality in Tanzania.

Migration in Tanzania

Tanzanian migration commonly takes place internally especially from rural to urban migration. A common factor is lack of job opportunities that are provided in rural areas. Due to this it is often hard for many to find jobs. Another factor for migration in Tanzania is fewer services and poor transport links that are located in rural areas.  Many are attracted to the urban life simply because there better job opportunities and this grabs attention of people in rural areas so as to access better and more advanced services.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN TANZANIA

The population distribution of Tanzania is not uniform due to many factors and these factors can be classified into physical, economic and social factors, as a result some spatial areas have high population while in other places it is very low.

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Climate-favorable climate is considered as an important factor responsible for human habitation. Places which are extreme hot like those experienced in Singida, Dodoma and Dar es Salaam and extreme cold places discourage human settlement and consequently influence the population but places receiving enough rainfall are found to be densely populated example Kilimanjaro, Manyara and Kagera, this also influences agricultural activities.

Relief- Areas of high attitudes have low population because extreme low temperatures are experienced there, most of crops do not grow well beyond attitude of 2500m. However some communities choose to live in the mountain areas for security reasons.

Vegetation- Areas with dense forests are sparsely populated. It is difficult to develop communication line in such areas. They are also habitats for wild animals which may be danger to human habitation, livestock and crops. Example areas such as Miombo woodlands of Tanzania are infested with tsetse flies threat people and livestock; this has discouraged settlement in such areas.

Fertile land- Areas with fertile soil such as areas around Lake Victoria has attracted large scale of population. Unlike places with less fertile such as the leached soils are less densely populated because they are agriculturally unproductive.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

Population distribution in an area depends to a large extent on the type and scale of economic activities. People move and settle near established transport routes such as roads and industries, this accounts attraction of large population.

Kahama Urban district located in Shinyanga region is now experiencing rapid population growth due to increase of  development economic opportunities including the Isaka dry port and mining activities resulting to existence of employment from Buzwagi Gold mine and it is largely contributing to the government revenue.

Market is also the most effective engine of economic development, it is considered to be important activity for sales, distribution, branding and many more activities for business and a place where goods and services are produced for the society according to their needs. Therefore presence of market influences flow of people into that area to search market for their products. Example of Kariakoo market in Dar es Salaam region has largely influenced rapid growth of population due to existence of several business activities conducted in that specific area.

Transport system; Transport is also a critical component of economic development national and globally. It has a remarkable impact upon population movement and distribution, dense population can be found in areas with well transport routes where various goods or services can be easily transported but in areas with rough  and unwell developed roads especially in rural areas tend to have low density population.

So, in most rural areas where there are no economic opportunities, poor trading links and markets, poor infrastructures with few roads and services tend to have minimum number of people because they move to urban areas for employment opportunities so as to raise their standard of living.

SOCIAL FACTOR

Availability of water supply; Water is essential for life; the places which have abundant water for daily consumption and for agricultural purposes are moderately to densely populate. Even industries are established at places which have sufficient supply of water, for examples in cities such as Arusha, Dar es Salaam, Mwanza and Tanga have industries due to sufficient water supply. But on the hand, in areas experiencing scarcity of water have less number of populations.

Educational factor; people migrate from one place to other places for higher studies and knowledge. In case of Tanzania, most students study away from their home town to other regions for better studies leading spread of people where areas with presence of educational sectors are densely populated and other areas being low populated this result to uneven population distribution.

Availability of electricity supply; ready and sufficient supply of electricity is and essential feature in industrial development regions with high density of population and the demand for electric power increases. This can be found in major cities of Tanzania such Mwanza, Arusha, Dar es Salaam experience high number of people due to electricity supply. Unlike areas with no electricity experience low number of people, Tanzanian government has improve provision of electricity but all areas, rural regional areas in Kigoma, Singida, Rukwa, Lindi experience sparse population.

HOW SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CAN BE ACHIEVED IN COUNTRIES SUFFERING WITH CONFLICTS

This article aims at providing support to countries emerging from conflict in integrating sustainable development principles into comprehensive national strategies and development plans.

Observing the rule of law; in order for the state in Africa to perform its protective functions, at minimum, the protective state must maintain law and order, provide the where will be popular participation, enhance entrepreneurial activity, and maximize the national welfare. Participation of people in decision on resource use and allocation will overcome conflicts over resources. Also In its productive role, the state should produce the goods and services that citizens acting in their individual and separate capacities cannot undertake efficiently. This will bring proper use of resources hence, sustainable development.

State has the potential role to improve national wealth through the production and distribution of goods and services that cannot be organized efficiently by the private sector, such a function can only be carried out efficiently if the country's institutional arrangements adequately and effectively constrain the exercise of government agency, the government may be unwilling to undertake the activities as required, example controlling mining by the government rather than private sector could reduce conflicts where the government can give priorities to the natives in production but, because of corruption this is a problem, therefore in order  to have sustainable development the civil agencies should be considered first in development issues rather than private sector.

Social change; the transformation towards a developed nation is not solely based on economic and technological progress. It also needs progress in social, cultural, intellectual and spiritual fields. To achieve these, the enhancement of ethics and integrity to ensure that they become part of the society's culture is absolutely necessary. Only with these values and norms in place, our successes can be sustained and the people's well-being enhanced. At the same time, the first world infrastructure facilities already in place in in such state should not be wasted or misused, and sustainable development can be achieved.

The rise of people's awareness and concern for ethics and integrity and their demand for the elimination of corruption, abuse of power and incompetence should be increased. Integrity must not be compromised while concerted efforts must be undertaken to enhance the integrity of the government, private sector, political parties, media, trade unions, NGOs, youth, students and the general public. This will influence accountability and transparencies among integrated sectors which deals with natural resources and can lead achievement of sustainable development.

Integrated decision making; promotes coherent and coordinated approaches to institutional frameworks for sustainable development at all national levels, including through, as appropriate, the establishment or strengthening of existing authorities and mechanisms necessary for policy-making, coordination and implementation and enforcement of laws;

Take immediate steps to make progress in the formulation and elaboration of national strategies for sustainable development and begin their implementation by 2005. To this end, as appropriate, strategies should be supported through international cooperation, taking into account the special needs of developing countries, in particular the least developed countries. Such strategies, which, where applicable, could be formulated as poverty reduction strategies that integrate economic, social and environmental aspects of sustainable development, should be pursued in accordance with each country’s national priorities”.

                   

Reviewing of land tenure system; Proper demarcation of land use should be identified, land for pastoral, farmers, and other uses. Community land rights and the rights of community members within their boundaries are entitled to full legal protection, whether titled and registered or not. The same is true for persons who have occupied land for 10 years or more in good faith prior to the enactment of the law. The law should define each and every aspect of land ownership rights which will be used to supervise proper use of land in order to achieve sustainable development.

Institutional agreements; as a result of prolonged conflict, institutions in post-conflict states are often weak, and Trust in these institutions the major functions of which include public security and law enforcement may have been lost over the course of a conflict. In many countries suffering with conflicts is due to the luck of clearer agreement between the institution or the stakeholders of natural resources in the country, which can be either nongovernmental organization (NGOs) like financial institution, national bank and many other institutes. All in all institutional agreement helps to reduce the occurrence of conflicts in the country which can harm the production and the available natural resources negatively. Generally the availability of agreement between the institutions can enable people to engage in production hence the sustainable development. Example in Rwanda the institutions like the financial institutions, economic planning institutions and the national bank provides a lot of support in the sustainable development by providing fund for the financial sector as the part of the second economic development and poverty reduction strategies.

Recognition of peoples right and responsibilities; this means that the main causes of conflict is the government or community fail to recognize the needs of people, in achieving the sustainable development the rights and the responsibilities  of the people have to be recognized so as to avoid conflicts which may led to the destruction of properties or people to concentrate much in fighting than participating in different activities which can bring development, hence the reason to how the sustainable development can be achieved in the country suffering with conflict because the country with conflict like Rwanda and Burundi to achieve the sustainable development is not easy.

Equity distribution of wealth; Equity comes from the concept of social justice. It present the belief that there is something people should have, that their basic needs should be fulfilled. This means there should be a minimum level of income and environment equity below no body fall. Within community also means that everyone should have equal access to the community resources and opportunities. Presence of unequal distribution always brought conflict to the community, hence in order to make sustainable development the equity should encouraged. There are two ways of ensure sustainability of future generation to supply their needs. One is to view environment in term of natural resource or natural capital available for wealth creation, hence the future generation should have same ability to create wealth, and this refers as weak sustainability. But the other way to view environment offering more than economic potential that cannot be replaced by man-made wealth, this refers as strong sustainability. Hence by encouraging equity and distribution of wealth or natural resource the accessibility of sustainable development become high.

Birth control; this involves the control of population increase in the community. This means birth rate should be controlled through family planning and maintaining low birth rate. Increased birth rate leads to population growth and cause competition to the use of natural resources. As the population increase probability having over utilization of natural resources become high, hence conflict but for the aims of control it, birth rate should be controlled effective. Examples, China is one of the best state succeed in control of its population growth, sense 1970`s.for sustainable development always attained by control birth rate to area of high population which make sustainability of it by balance the natural resource available and population available to the community.

The use of biotechnology, the increase of post-conflicts in many countries has contributed to decrease of production. The reduction in production can be achieved through the use of biotechnology, this refers to the use of living things to make or change products. Among of the broad range of technologies with the potential to reach the goal of sustainability, biotechnology could take on important place especially in the field of food production, renewable raw material and energy, pollution prevention and bio-remediation. The use of biotechnology contribute to sustainable development since it encourage the reduction of environmentally damaging  and influence the adaptation of sustainable practice such as conservation tillage, precise agriculture and integrated crop management. Likewise the production of more foods on the same area of land reduces pressure to expand into the wildness which supports biodiversity and vital ecosystem.

Peace maintenance, many countries in Africa are experiencing or suffering with conflicts, which contributes to the increase of unsustainable development. Therefore the way to achieve sustainability in these countries is to insure that peace is kept. Peace maintenance can contribute to solve the misunderstanding or conflicts which are existing in the countries since lack of peace to any country drains away resources. In the armed conflicts destroy natural resources, infrastructures and human lives. Hence the establishment of peace maintenance permits the recuperation f stable condition for sustainable development and liberates resources for needed investment. For instance, the existences of misunderstanding in sub-Saharan countries are solved by United Nation Peace building Fund (UNPF). This is a multi-donor trust fund, it provide funding for peace building or maintenance activities that directly contributes to post-conflicts and stabilization.